Le Chatelier’s principle is a fundamental concept in chemistry that describes how a chemical system responds to changes in its environment, such as changes in concentration, temperature, and pressure. The principle states that when a chemical system at equilibrium is subjected to a change in one of these factors, the system will adjust to partially…
In a substance response, compound harmony is the state where both the reactants and items are available in focuses which have no further propensity to change with time, so there is no discernible change in the properties of the framework. This state results when the forward response continues at a similar rate as the opposite…
The criteria for equilibrium and spontaneity are closely related to the concept of Gibbs free energy, which is a thermodynamic function that measures the energy available in a system to do useful work. The Gibbs free energy is defined as follows: ΔG = ΔH – TΔS where ΔG is the change in Gibbs free energy,…
Entropy is a concept from thermodynamics that refers to the degree of disorder or randomness in a system. In statistical mechanics, it is often defined as the number of microstates (arrangements of particles or energy levels) that correspond to a given macrostate (observable properties like temperature, pressure, or volume). The greater the number of microstates,…
The second law of thermodynamics is a fundamental principle in physics that states that in any spontaneous process, the total entropy of a closed system will always increase over time, or remain constant in ideal cases. Entropy is a measure of the disorder or randomness of a system, and the second law of thermodynamics tells…
The standard state of a substance is a reference state used in thermodynamics, which is typically defined as the most stable physical state of the substance at a pressure of 1 bar and a specified temperature, usually 25°C (298.15 K). For pure substances, the standard state is often the most common state of the substance…
Heat capacity is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a substance by one degree Celsius or one Kelvin. It is a physical property of a substance that measures its ability to store heat energy. Heat capacity is usually denoted by the symbol “C” and has units of joules per degree…
Work and heat are both important concepts in thermodynamics. In thermodynamics, work is defined as the energy transferred when a force is applied over a distance, while heat is defined as the energy transferred between two objects at different temperatures. In terms of pressure and volume, work is calculated as the product of the pressure…
Internal energy refers to the total energy that is contained within a system. This energy includes the kinetic and potential energies of the particles within the system, as well as any other forms of energy that may be present, such as chemical energy, thermal energy, and nuclear energy. The internal energy of a system is…
The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the law of conservation of energy, states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to another or transferred from one system to another. In other words, the total amount of energy in a closed system remains constant. This law is fundamental to…
