Cells are the basic unit of life and are the smallest structural and functional unit of living organisms. All living organisms, from the simplest unicellular organisms like bacteria to the most complex multicellular organisms like humans, are made up of cells. Cells have several components, including a cell membrane, cytoplasm, and genetic material. The cell…
Capacitance is a measure of a capacitor’s ability to store electric charge. A capacitor is an electronic component that consists of two conductive plates separated by a dielectric material, such as air or a non-conductive plastic. When a voltage is applied across the plates, electrons from one plate accumulate on the other, creating an electric…
Gauss’s law is a fundamental law of electromagnetism that relates the distribution of electric charge to the resulting electric field. The law states that the electric flux through any closed surface is proportional to the total amount of electric charge enclosed within the surface. In mathematical terms, Gauss’s law can be expressed as: ∮S E…
The electrical potential energy of a system of point charges is the amount of energy required to assemble the charges into their given configuration from an infinite separation. The electrical potential energy of a pair of charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r is given by: U = k * q1 * q2…
Kirchhoff’s laws refer to two fundamental laws of circuit theory that govern the behavior of electrical circuits. These laws are essential tools in circuit analysis and can be used to solve complex electrical circuits with multiple components and sources. What is Required Kirchhoff’s law Kirchhoff’s laws are fundamental laws of circuit theory and are required…
The Carnot engine is a theoretical heat engine that operates on a reversible thermodynamic cycle. It was developed by French physicist Sadi Carnot in 1824 and is considered to be the most efficient heat engine possible, according to the second law of thermodynamics. The Carnot engine operates between two heat reservoirs, one at a high…
In physics, the second law of thermodynamics is a fundamental principle that governs the behavior of energy and entropy in a closed system. It states that the total entropy of a closed system always increases over time, or remains constant in an ideal reversible process. Entropy is a measure of the degree of disorder or…
The equivalence of heat and work is known as the first law of thermodynamics, which states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be transformed from one form to another. Heat and work are two forms of energy that can be converted into each other. When a system undergoes a change, the…
In thermal physics, an isothermal process is a thermodynamic process during which the temperature of a system remains constant. This means that the internal energy of the system remains constant as well. In an isothermal process, any energy transferred to or from the system is in the form of work or heat. The work done…
Cv and Cp are thermodynamic properties that describe the heat capacity of a substance at constant volume (Cv) and constant pressure (Cp), respectively. Cv is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance by one degree Celsius at constant volume. It represents the ability of a substance to store…
