Enantiomers are a type of stereoisomerism that occurs in organic chemistry when two molecules are non-superimposable mirror images of each other. They have the same chemical and physical properties, except for their effect on plane-polarized light and interactions with other chiral molecules. Enantiomers have a chiral center, which is an atom that is attached to…
Stereoisomers are molecules that have the same molecular formula and connectivity of atoms but differ in the spatial arrangement of their atoms in three-dimensional space. They arise due to the presence of chiral centers, double bonds, or other forms of isomerism. Stereoisomers can be divided into two categories: enantiomers and diastereomers. Enantiomers are stereoisomers that…
Structural isomerism and geometrical isomerism are two different types of isomerism in organic chemistry. Structural isomerism occurs when molecules have the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms. This can be due to differences in the bonding patterns of the atoms within the molecule. For example, pentane and 2-methylbutane have the same molecular formula…
Aromaticity is a chemical property that describes the special stability of certain cyclic molecules, known as aromatic compounds, that contain a specific arrangement of alternating double bonds (pi bonds) and single bonds (sigma bonds). This arrangement of bonds results in a delocalized pi-electron system that is particularly stable and resistant to reactions that would normally…
Carbon can undergo hybridization to form hybrid orbitals that can participate in chemical bonding. Hybridization of carbon involves the mixing of its valence orbitals, which are the 2s and three 2p orbitals, to form new hybrid orbitals. The most common hybridizations of carbon are sp, sp2, and sp3 hybridizations. The type of hybridization that carbon…
Green chemistry is a branch of chemistry that focuses on the development of chemical products and processes that are environmentally sustainable and minimize or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances. The goal of green chemistry is to design and develop chemicals and processes that reduce or eliminate the negative impact on human health…
Soil pollution refers to the contamination of soil with harmful substances that can have a detrimental effect on the environment, human health, and the ecosystem. Soil pollution can occur from various sources, including industrial activities, agricultural practices, improper disposal of waste, and natural disasters. Some common contaminants that contribute to soil pollution include heavy metals,…
Atmospheric pollution refers to the presence of harmful substances in the air we breathe, including gases, particles, and biological molecules. This pollution can come from natural sources, such as wildfires and dust storms, but is primarily caused by human activities like burning fossil fuels, industrial processes, and transportation. The most common types of atmospheric pollutants…
Sulphate and sulphide are two different types of chemical compounds that contain sulfur. Sulphate (or sulfate in American English) is a salt or ester of sulfuric acid. It contains the sulfate ion (SO4²⁻), which consists of one sulfur atom and four oxygen atoms. Examples of sulfate compounds include magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt), sodium sulfate (Glauber’s…
Halides are compounds that contain halogens, which are elements in group 17 of the periodic table. The halogens include fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine. Excluding fluoride, halides refer to compounds that contain any of these other halogens. Some examples of halides excluding fluoride include: These halides can be found in a variety of compounds,…
