Corrosion

Corrosion is the gradual degradation of a material due to a chemical reaction with its environment. It is a natural process that occurs in materials such as metals, ceramics, and polymers, and can lead to the loss of mechanical strength, structural integrity, and even aesthetic appearance of the material. Corrosion can occur in many different…

Kohlrausch’s law

Kohlrausch’s law, also known as Kohlrausch’s displacement law, states that the molar conductivity of an electrolyte can be expressed as the sum of the contributions of its individual ions. In other words, the total conductivity of an electrolyte solution is equal to the sum of the conductivities of the cations and anions present in the…

Faraday’s laws of electrolysis

Faraday’s laws of electrolysis are two fundamental laws that describe the quantitative relationship between the amount of electric charge passed through an electrolytic cell and the amount of chemical change that occurs during electrolysis. These laws were developed by the British scientist Michael Faraday in the early 19th century. Faraday’s First Law of Electrolysis states…

Nernst equation

The Nernst equation is an important formula in electrochemistry that relates the concentration of ions in a solution to the potential difference across a membrane or electrode. The equation is named after German chemist Walther Nernst, who formulated it in 1889. The Nernst equation is given as: E = E° – (RT/nF) * ln(Q) where:…

Hydrolysis of salts

Hydrolysis of salts is a chemical reaction in which a salt reacts with water to produce an acidic or basic solution. The nature of the salt and the pH of the resulting solution depend on the cation and anion present in the salt. If the cation is derived from a strong base and the anion…

Acids and bases (Bronsted and Lewis concepts)

Acids and bases are fundamental concepts in chemistry that are used to describe the properties of various chemical substances. The Bronsted and Lewis concepts are two different approaches used to define acids and bases. The Bronsted-Lowry concept defines an acid as a substance that donates a proton (H+) and a base as a substance that…

Common ion effect

The common ion effect is a phenomenon in which the solubility of a slightly soluble salt is decreased by the presence of a common ion in the solution. This effect is due to the principle of Le Chatelier’s principle, which states that a system at equilibrium will shift to counteract any stress placed upon it.…

Le Chatelier’s principle (effect of concentration, temperature and pressure)

Le Chatelier’s principle is a fundamental concept in chemistry that describes how a chemical system responds to changes in its environment, such as changes in concentration, temperature, and pressure. The principle states that when a chemical system at equilibrium is subjected to a change in one of these factors, the system will adjust to partially…

Law of mass action

The law of mass action is a fundamental principle in chemistry and chemical kinetics that describes the relationship between the concentrations of reactants and products in a chemical reaction at equilibrium. It states that the rate of a chemical reaction is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reactants, each raised to a…

Criteria of equilibrium and Spontaneity

The criteria for equilibrium and spontaneity are closely related to the concept of Gibbs free energy, which is a thermodynamic function that measures the energy available in a system to do useful work. The Gibbs free energy is defined as follows: ΔG = ΔH – TΔS where ΔG is the change in Gibbs free energy,…