Standard electrode potentials

Standard electrode potentials (also known as standard reduction potentials) are a measure of the tendency of a chemical species to undergo reduction or oxidation under standard conditions. These potentials are reported relative to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE), which is assigned a potential of 0.00 volts. Standard electrode potentials are typically represented using the notation…

Electrochemical cells and cell reactions

Electrochemical cells are devices that convert chemical energy into electrical energy or vice versa. They involve a redox (reduction-oxidation) reaction, which occurs at the interface between two electrodes immersed in an electrolyte solution. In an electrochemical cell, there are two half-cells, each consisting of an electrode and an electrolyte. The half-cell where oxidation occurs is…

Hydrolysis of salts

Hydrolysis of salts is a chemical reaction in which a salt reacts with water to produce an acidic or basic solution. The nature of the salt and the pH of the resulting solution depend on the cation and anion present in the salt. If the cation is derived from a strong base and the anion…

Acids and bases (Bronsted and Lewis concepts)

Acids and bases are fundamental concepts in chemistry that are used to describe the properties of various chemical substances. The Bronsted and Lewis concepts are two different approaches used to define acids and bases. The Bronsted-Lowry concept defines an acid as a substance that donates a proton (H+) and a base as a substance that…

pH and Buffer solutions

pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution. pH ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral, lower pH values indicating acidity, and higher pH values indicating basicity. A pH of 7 is considered neutral…

Le Chatelier’s principle (effect of concentration, temperature and pressure)

Le Chatelier’s principle is a fundamental concept in chemistry that describes how a chemical system responds to changes in its environment, such as changes in concentration, temperature, and pressure. The principle states that when a chemical system at equilibrium is subjected to a change in one of these factors, the system will adjust to partially…

Significance of ȟܩ and ȟܩ ٓin chemical equilibrium

In a substance response, compound harmony is the state where both the reactants and items are available in focuses which have no further propensity to change with time, so there is no discernible change in the properties of the framework. This state results when the forward response continues at a similar rate as the opposite…

Law of mass action

The law of mass action is a fundamental principle in chemistry and chemical kinetics that describes the relationship between the concentrations of reactants and products in a chemical reaction at equilibrium. It states that the rate of a chemical reaction is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reactants, each raised to a…

Gibbs energy

Gibbs energy, also known as Gibbs free energy, is a thermodynamic quantity that measures the amount of energy available to do useful work in a chemical reaction or physical process at constant temperature and pressure. It is denoted by the symbol G and has units of joules (J) or kilojoules (kJ) per mole. Gibbs energy…

Entropy

Entropy is a concept from thermodynamics that refers to the degree of disorder or randomness in a system. In statistical mechanics, it is often defined as the number of microstates (arrangements of particles or energy levels) that correspond to a given macrostate (observable properties like temperature, pressure, or volume). The greater the number of microstates,…