DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) are the two types of nucleic acids that are found in all living organisms. They play a critical role in storing, transmitting, and expressing genetic information. The structure of DNA is a double helix, consisting of two complementary strands of nucleotides. A nucleotide is composed of a nitrogenous…
Nucleic acids are macromolecules that are essential to all living organisms. They are made up of building blocks called nucleotides, which consist of a nitrogenous base, a sugar molecule, and a phosphate group. There are two types of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). The chemical composition of DNA nucleotides includes: The…
Proteins are complex biomolecules that perform a variety of functions in living organisms. They can be classified into two main types: fibrous and globular proteins. Fibrous proteins are long and thin, with a repeating pattern of amino acids. They are often used for structural support and protection in cells and tissues. Examples of fibrous proteins…
Peptides are short chains of amino acids that are linked together by peptide bonds. The structure of a peptide can be described at several levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. Overall, the secondary structure is determined by the primary sequence of amino acids, as well as by the environment of the peptide (e.g., temperature, pH,…
Peptide linkage, also known as amide linkage, is the covalent bond that forms between the carboxyl group (–COOH) of one amino acid and the amino group (–NH2) of another amino acid during protein synthesis. The bond is formed through a dehydration synthesis reaction, which involves the removal of a water molecule. The resulting bond between…
Proteins are complex molecules that are essential to life. They are made up of long chains of smaller molecules called amino acids. There are 20 different amino acids that can be combined in various ways to form different proteins. Each amino acid has a unique chemical structure and properties that determine its role in protein…
Anomers are a type of stereoisomers that differ in the spatial orientation of the substituents at the anomeric carbon atom in a cyclic sugar molecule. The anomeric carbon is the carbon atom that is involved in the formation of the cyclic hemiacetal or hemiketal ring in monosaccharides. There are two anomers: α-anomer and β-anomer. The…
Sucrose, maltose, and lactose are all types of sugars. Sucrose is a disaccharide made up of glucose and fructose molecules. It is commonly found in table sugar, as well as in fruits, vegetables, and some grains. Maltose is also a disaccharide, but it is made up of two glucose molecules. It is commonly found in…
Hydrolysis of disaccharides is a chemical reaction that breaks down disaccharides into their constituent monosaccharides through the addition of water. Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharides linked together by a glycosidic bond, which can be broken by the addition of water in the presence of an acid or enzyme. For example, the disaccharide sucrose (table…
Glycoside formation is a chemical reaction in which a sugar molecule (i.e., a saccharide) reacts with another molecule (usually an alcohol or phenol) to form a glycoside. Glycosides are a type of organic molecule that are widely found in nature, particularly in plants, where they can serve as storage compounds or structural components of cell…
