DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) are the two types of nucleic acids that are found in all living organisms. They play a critical role in storing, transmitting, and expressing genetic information. The structure of DNA is a double helix, consisting of two complementary strands of nucleotides. A nucleotide is composed of a nitrogenous…
Peptides are short chains of amino acids that are linked together by peptide bonds. The structure of a peptide can be described at several levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. Overall, the secondary structure is determined by the primary sequence of amino acids, as well as by the environment of the peptide (e.g., temperature, pH,…
Peptide linkage, also known as amide linkage, is the covalent bond that forms between the carboxyl group (–COOH) of one amino acid and the amino group (–NH2) of another amino acid during protein synthesis. The bond is formed through a dehydration synthesis reaction, which involves the removal of a water molecule. The resulting bond between…
Proteins are complex molecules that are essential to life. They are made up of long chains of smaller molecules called amino acids. There are 20 different amino acids that can be combined in various ways to form different proteins. Each amino acid has a unique chemical structure and properties that determine its role in protein…
Sucrose, maltose, and lactose are all types of sugars. Sucrose is a disaccharide made up of glucose and fructose molecules. It is commonly found in table sugar, as well as in fruits, vegetables, and some grains. Maltose is also a disaccharide, but it is made up of two glucose molecules. It is commonly found in…
Hydrolysis of disaccharides is a chemical reaction that breaks down disaccharides into their constituent monosaccharides through the addition of water. Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharides linked together by a glycosidic bond, which can be broken by the addition of water in the presence of an acid or enzyme. For example, the disaccharide sucrose (table…
Reduction is a chemical reaction that involves the gain of electrons, which results in a decrease in the oxidation state of an atom or molecule. Biomolecules such as carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins can undergo reduction reactions. Carbohydrates can undergo reduction to form sugar alcohols, which have important industrial applications. For example, glucose can be reduced…
Glucose and sucrose are both carbohydrates commonly found in food. Glucose is a simple sugar, also known as a monosaccharide, with the chemical formula C6H12O6. It is the primary source of energy for most living organisms and is commonly found in fruits, vegetables, and honey. Glucose is also a component of more complex carbohydrates such…
Mono- and disaccharides are two types of carbohydrates that are important for providing energy to the body. Monosaccharides are single sugar molecules that cannot be broken down into smaller units by hydrolysis. Some examples of monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharide units joined together by a glycosidic bond. Some…
Carbohydrates are one of the three macronutrients that provide energy to the body. They are organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with a general formula of (CH2O)n, where “n” can be any number. Carbohydrates are classified based on the number of sugar units they contain: Carbohydrates can also be classified as either…
